NEYART Journal

ISSN: 2992-7161

MEASURING SOFT SKILLS

FOR UNIVERSITY STUDENTS ENTERING THE WORKFORCE

EVALUACIÓN DE LAS HABILIDADES SOCIALES

PARA ESTUDIANTES UNIVERSITARIOS QUE SE INCORPORAN

AL MERCADO LABORAL

García Parada Ricardo

TecNM/Instituto Tecnológico de Chihuahua II

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6266-3016

riky_vetch@hotmail.com

Orduño Aguirre Edgar Gerardo

TecNM/Instituto Tecnológico de Chihuahua II

https://orcid.org/ 0009-0007-8975-6734

edgar.oa@chihuahua2.tecnm.mx

Hernández Máynez Obed

TecNM/Instituto Tecnológico de Chihuahua II

https://orcid.org/0009-0009-7350-6989

obed.hm@chihuahua2.tecnm.mx

Silva Martínez Mario Héctor

TecNM/Instituto Tecnológico de Chihuahua II

https://orcid.org/0009-0005-0659-9004

mario.sm@chihuahua2.tecnm.mx

Castillo Cruz Olga Rebeca

TecNM/Instituto Tecnológico de Chihuahua II

https://orcid.org/ 009-0002-6266-30163

olga.cc@chihuahua2.tecnm.mx

DOI: https://doi.org/10.61273/neyart.v4i1.203

| Received: 16/02/2026 | Accepted: 20/04/2026 | Published: 22/05/2026

This work is licensed under

an international

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.

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Abstract-- This is a cross-sectional, quantitative study on the development of soft skills among 44 first-

semester psychology students at CESMAG University. The study included a 37-item psychometric scale

that assessed three areas: Self-Management (AUT), Interpersonal Skills (HHII), and Difficulties in

Assertiveness in Negotiation and Adaptation to Teamwork (DANAE). The results showed moderate

development. The Self-Management and Interpersonal Skills scales were average (2.41 and 2.38),

respectively, while the DANAE values were low-moderate (2.55). There was no interaction by gender.

All skills are functional, but none reached the maximum. The integration of training in organizational

soft skills such as negotiation, assertiveness, commitment, and collaborative leadership should be

considered to better align training with the needs of the labor market. These results lay the groundwork

for longitudinal follow-up in higher Education.

Keywords—Employability, Higher Education, Psychometry, Soft skills.

Abstract-- Este es un estudio transversal y cuantitativo sobre el desarrollo de habilidades blandas en 44

docentes de Psicología del primer semestre de la Universidad CESMAG. El estudio incluyó una escala

psicométrica de 37 ítems que evaluó tres áreas: Autogestión (AUT), Habilidades Interpersonales (HHII)

y Dificultades en la Asertividad en la Negociación y la Adaptación al Trabajo en Equipo (DANAE). Los

resultados mostraron un desarrollo moderado. Las escalas de Autogestión y Habilidades Interpersonales

fueron medias (2,41 y 2,38), respectivamente, mientras que los valores de DANAE fueron bajos-

moderados (2,55). No hubo interacción por sexo. Todas las habilidades son funcionales, pero ninguna

alcanzó el máximo. Debe considerarse la integración de la formación en habilidades blandas

organizacionales como la negociación, la asertividad, el compromiso y el liderazgo colaborativo, para

mejorar la adecuación de la formación a las necesidades del mercado laboral. Estos resultados sientan

una base para el seguimiento longitudinal en la educación superior.

Keywords-- Habilidades blandas, Educación superior, Empleabilidad, Psicometría.

INTRODUCTION

In recent decades, the labor market has undergone profound transformations driven by automation,

digitization, and the globalization of economies. Faced with this scenario, organizations have reoriented

their criteria for selecting talent, placing increasing emphasis not only on technical competencies—

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known as hard skills—but also on a set of interpersonal, emotional, and social attributes known as soft

skills. These include effective communication, collaboration, critical thinking, emotional intelligence,

conflict resolution, and leadership.

Upon graduation, students are expected to demonstrate disciplinary knowledge, among other things, but

above all, for a successful career, the possession of these key social skills. However, the objective and

systematic measurement of these skills remains one of the most complex challenges in the field of

educational and organizational psychology, given their multidimensional nature and the lack of

standardized instruments with cross-cultural validity.

This article addresses the challenge of measuring soft skills in college students about to enter the

workforce. Through a review of national and international literature, it analyzes the state of knowledge

regarding the instruments, methodologies, and approaches used to assess these competencies, identifying

theoretical and methodological gaps that justify the need for additional empirical studies in specific

contexts.

International Background

There has been an academic focus around soft skills in workplaces and education looking forward, which

studies across Europe, North America and Asia have indicated relevance. In Europe, Andrews and Higson

(2008) identified a disjunction between university technical skills and preferred work-ready vocational

social skills that employers value. Although technical skills may bring easier and quicker employment,

their study reveals the lack of training in soft skills such as communication, collaboration or adaptability

which receive little emphasis in university rather than professional education (Andrews & Higson, 2008).

Workers with strong non-cognitive skills have been proven by labor economics such as Heckman and

Kautz (2012) to predict occupational and economic success sometimes more powerfully than IQ

(Heckman & Kautz, 2012).

In the U.S. business sector, Robles (2012) identified the ten soft skills most valued by corporate executives

through direct surveys. Among the most frequently cited competencies were integrity, communication,

courtesy, responsibility, and work ethic. This study revealed that 75% of long-term career success depends

on interpersonal skills, while only 25% is attributable to technical knowledge (Robles, 2012).

They compared employers’ and students’ perceptions of the importance of soft skills among European

students (Succi and Canovi, 2020). Eighty-six percent knew that they have become more relevant over

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the past 5 to 10 years, but employers value them even more than students do. They argued that higher

education should work more closely with businesses to deliberately cultivate these skills (Succi and

Canovi, 2020).

Tseng et al. (2019) also investigated the soft skills of students at an online business university and found

that self-regulation, motivation, and social skills varied with respect to their academic level and leadership

role, indicating that interpersonal competencies are among the challenges posed by the digital

environment.

The Multiple Soft Skills Assessment Tool (MSSAT) for evaluating soft skills within organizations was

developed and validated by Colledani, Robusto, and Anselmi (2024). In a study that utilized item response

theory and network analysis, they demonstrated that these skills (communication, collaboration,

resilience) are predictive of job satisfaction and performance, and that the instrument is group-invariance

(Colledani et al., 2024).

Latin American Background

Research investigating soft skills in the undergraduate population of Latin American university students

has increased over the last 10 years; however, studies employing validated tools are scarce. Guerra-Báez

(2019) performed a review about soft skills training in university students of Latin America finding that

universities are slow to adopt strategies for the development of empathy, assertive communication and

critical thinking arguing for social learning as an effective training model (Guerra-Báez, 2019).

Hernández Herrera & Neri Torres (2020) investigated undergraduate student´s soft skills in engineering

students through three public universities in Mexico. They used a descriptive quantitative approach and

identified strong teamwork and responsibility alongside weak oral communication and problem-solving.

This requires the need of soft skills training from a very early age (Hernández Herrera & Neri Torres,

2020).

Fuentes et al. (2021) studied soft skills in social sciences students as well, but focused on Colombian

university students of psychology and health administration by using an online survey during the COVID-

19 pandemic comparisions before-and-after distant learning. Employing a quantitative cross-sectional

method they revealed average scores in emotional intelligence and interpersonal skills yet below average

category in leadership and time management which shows need for interventions programs prior to

graduation.

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This paper investigates soft skills among 330 engineering students at TECNM Coatzacoalcos in Mexico

and presents gender differences (Vázquez-González, Clara-Zafra, Céspedes-Gallegos, Ceja-Romay, &

Pacheco-López, 2022). Female participants demonstrated greater communication skills and the ability to

express empathy, while male participants exhibited superior soft skills under pressure; this, in turn,

confirmed gender as a moderating variable in university students’ soft skills.

Finally, Infante-Alcántara, Araiza-Vázquez and López-Pérez (2023) focuses on the effect of soft skills in

the labor market integration of engineering graduates from northeastern Mexico. ResultsConfirmatory

factor analyses revealed that perceived employability is primarily driven by effective communication,

adaptability and problem-solving. In addition, a larger gap was observed between educational background

and job requirements regarding soft skills (see, Infante-Alcántara et al., 2023).

In the Latin American context, González, Granados, Clavijo, and Ruiz (2021) reviewed soft skills in

higher education and the workplace. They found that there is a growing need for culturally validated

instruments, and also that most studies use self-reports without peer evaluation or 360° feedback. They

suggested developing construct validity scales tailored to the sociocultural context in Latin America

(González et al., 2021).

Study Objective

The overall objective of this study is to analyze the level of development of soft skills among college

students nearing graduation and its relationship to their perceived readiness for entry into the workplace.

Rationale for the Study

The relevance of this study is grounded in multiple theoretical, practical, and social arguments. First,

from a theoretical perspective, the assessment of soft skills in Latin American university contexts

represents an emerging line of research, with a scarcity of validated instruments for Spanish-speaking

populations. Most of the instruments available are from Anglo-Saxon context and were not culturally

adapted to the socio-educational context of countries (such as Mexico, Colombia, Peru, Argentina or

Chile), limiting comparability and validity of findings.

Take it second, from a practical view, and if institutions learn about the soft skills profile of graduates

they are able to work on programs to fill gaps in competency. This information guides employers in their

selection and training processes. Students also win because they get feedback with a minimum of bias

before entering the labor market.

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Third, from a social perspective, one of the main causes of youth unemployment and job instability in

Latin America is the mismatch between the education provided by universities and the skills needs of the

labor market for university graduates. The transition from education to work—especially for graduates—

is a pivotal moment, in which the human capital acquired in soft skills is decisive, according to the ILO

and the OECD. Contextual and empirical studies help design policies to make young university graduates

more employable.

The methodological justification for the research is based on a proposal to measure a phenomenon

frequently measured through semi-structured or non-standardised qualitative methods, consistently by

using psychometric instruments which have been shown to be highly valid. Generating suitable and

comparable quantitative evidence is the focus of the consolidating proposal in knowledge regression that

should be devoted to soft skills assessment in Latin America.

Study Limitations

However, despite the relevance and significance of the research, it is necessary to acknowledge a set of

limitations that constrain the scope of its conclusions. First, the cross-sectional methodological design

does not allow for establishing causal relationships between the development of soft skills and graduates’

subsequent job performance; this would require a longitudinal follow-up that exceeds the temporal scope

of the present study.

Second, a self-report data collection method is used, which risks introducing social desirability bias (the

tendency of people to overestimate their competencies), such as among students who are about to

graduate. Although this effect will be controlled for as much as possible at the methodological level, it

cannot be completely eliminated from the results.

Another limitation of this study is generalizability, as the sample consisted of students from certain

universities and may not represent those from other regions or other educational settings or disciplines

not addressed. Limitations of the results include geographic and disciplinary representativeness.

DEVELOPMENT

Research Paradigm

The research proposal is framed within a positivist paradigm (quantitative, empirical–analytical, or

rationalist). It presupposes a verifiable reality that can be accessed through rigorous empirical means. Its

objective is to explain, predict, and control phenomena, while testing theories or hypotheses through the

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collection of numerical data and statistical analysis, which seeks to obtain objective, verifiable, and

replicable scientific knowledge, free from value judgments (Herrera Castrillo 2024).

The epistemological paradigm most relevant for this study is the positivist one, given that it measures

soft skills through standardised instruments. It is described by Miranda and Ortiz (2020) as the separation

of the knowing subject with the object, where a hypothetical-deductive method that gives generalizable

and comparable results is used. This is appropriate because the goal of this study is to map objective

trends in soft skill development among college students.

Research Approach

The study adopts a quantitative approach. According to Hernández-Sampieri and Mendoza Torres (2018),

the quantitative approach uses data collection to test hypotheses based on numerical measurement and

statistical analysis, with the aim of establishing patterns of behavior and testing theories. This follows a

linear process in which the problem leads to objectives and hypotheses; then, the literature review

develops it into a theoretical framework, after which numerical data can be collected and, therefore, tested

against the hypotheses.

The use of the quantitative approach, based on the successful operationalization of soft skills into

dimensions measurable via Likert scales (Hernández & Bodas González, 2021; Gati & Asher, 2001),

involves data generated for statistical analysis from a large sample and the ability to objectively compare

subgroups by gender and disciplinary area. This objective and systematic nature of the measurement is

essential for generating results with a high degree of reliability and validity in the Latin American

university context.

Type of Research

According to the classification proposed by Arias and Covinos (2021), this study is a descriptive research

project with a non-experimental, cross-sectional design. It is descriptive because its purpose is to outline

the characteristics and levels of soft skills present in the participating university students, without

establishing causal relationships between variables. It is non-experimental because no intentional

manipulation of the independent variables is performed; the researcher observes the phenomena as they

occur in their natural context to analyze them subsequently. Lastly, it is cross-sectional in nature which

means data collection was done at one specific moment in time making it a snapshot of the state of the

participants soft skills over the course of study period.

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This design is fit for the purposes of this study, in that it allows obtaining representative data on the profile

of transversal competences among university graduates without a need of longitudinal follow up or

control groups, which is not feasible within in time and logistic resources available to carry out the

research.

Participants

The study sample consisted of 44 university students who were in their final year of their bachelor’s

degree programs at the time of data collection, placing them at a stage close to entering the labor market.

Of these, 18 were men (40.9%) and 16 were women (36.4%), while the remaining participants did not

specify their gender in the administered questionnaire. The sample was selected using non-probabilistic

convenience sampling, given the accessibility of the participants and the need to include students in their

final year of study, a prerequisite for the study’s objective.

Inclusion criteria included being a full-time university student (attending on-campus in-person studies)

as well as completing at least 80% of the credits required by their academic program, together with being

aged over 18. Criteria for exclusion were refusal to participate voluntarily in the study or completion of

questionnaires with over 20% of answers not completed (to preserve data reliability).

Table 1.

Distribution of participants by gender

Category

Men

Frequency (n)

Percentage (%)

56.8%

25

19

44

Women

Total

43.2%

100%

Note: Prepared by the author.

Procedure

The data collection procedure was carried out in four successive phases. Data collection consisted of four

phases. The first phase involved a self-report questionnaire using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Never; 5 =

Always), developed to measure soft skills in college students, which was selected and adapted for this

purpose. It evaluates: (a) verbal abilities, not only the ability to communicate effectively; (b) teamwork,

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are you a team player?; (c) emotional intelligence and empathy and recognition of others' emotions; how

good are you at analyzing people? Partner with your teammates to be successful—people management

talent is very big right now as well. [e] leadership and influence; no better way than bonding through

sports or group activities — football 101 for team leaders; and last but not least (f) adaptability, can you

manage change?

In phase two, permissions were acquired and consent was informed. Academic authorities provided

permission, students were told why it was occurring, and confidentiality and anonymity were ensured.

All the participants signed the consent form in accordance to ethical standards.

For the third stage, a questionnaire was given in groups of 10 to 15 students per 30-minutes in-person

session on campus. Questions about the items went to the principal investigator, who was on hand if any

issues needed clarification.

Finally, the fourth phase involved the cleaning and coding of the database. Once the questionnaires were

collected, each instrument was thoroughly reviewed to identify incomplete or inconsistent responses. The

valid data were transferred to a spreadsheet and subsequently imported into the statistical software SPSS

(Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) version 26.0 for analysis.

Instrument

The instrument is a soft skills measurement scale developed according to the principles of Classical Test

Theory (CTT). It It included 37 Haladyna-type multiple choice items, divided into three dimensions to

measure individual skills for self-management and interpersonal relationships, as well assymptoms in

negotiation and team work.

The format for the response is to a Social Rating scale (A, B, C, D) — and are assigned scores from 1 to

4. For direct (positive) items, which are the ones scored from A to D, scores increase from lowest to

highest (A=1; B=2; C=3 and D=4), while in reverse (negative) items, as is the case of the Dutch database

for DANAE dimensions but also HHII some items should be treated as negative: higher answers mean

lower quality of life responding with A gives a score of four points and scoring downwards gives less

points.

The instrument is structured into three dimensions, described below:

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Dimension

Code

No. of

Items

Self-Management (AUT)

AUT

23

10, 12, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24,

25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34,

35, 36, 37

Interpersonal Skills (IIS)

II

10

4

1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17

2, 3, 4, 9

Difficulties

Assertiveness

Negotiation

with

DANAE

in

and

Team

Adjustment (DANAE)

Self-Management (AUT)

This is the dimension with the highest weighting within the instrument, consisting of 23 items (items 10

through 37, excluding those belonging to other dimensions). It assesses the individual’s ability to make

autonomous decisions, adapt to changes in the environment, communicate their vision, motivate others,

and set personal and professional goals. All items in this dimension are direct (positive) and are scored

on a scale of 1 to 4.

Interpersonal Skills (HHII)

Comprising 10 items (1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17), this dimension assesses competencies related to

collaborative work, consultative decision-making, and motivation toward collective goals. Most of its

items are direct; however, item 7 (“I prefer to work alone rather than in a team”) is reverse-scored, so its

rating is inverted.

Difficulties with Assertiveness in Negotiation and Team Adjustment (DANAE)

This dimension consists of 4 items (2, 3, 4, and 9) and measures the difficulties individuals experience in

negotiation contexts and when adapting to group work. All items are reverse-scored, meaning that higher

scores on the responses indicate greater difficulties. Scoring is reversed: A=4, B=3, C=2, D=1.

Psychometric Considerations

The instrument falls within the parameters of Classical Test Theory (CTT), which means that its validity

and reliability are assessed based on indicators such as the item difficulty index and the internal

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consistency coefficient (Cronbach’s Alpha). As a typical performance scale, it measures the examinee’s

usual behaviors and attitudes, rather than their maximum performance.

The reverse-scored items in the DANAE and HHII dimensions (item 7) are a methodological strategy to

minimize acquiescence bias, which strengthens the construct validity of the instrument. The scores on all

items should be reversed before calculating the total score per dimension.

The allocation of items across dimensions (23AUT, 10HHII and 4DANAE) indicates that the instrument

prioritises self-management skills meaning this must be paid attention to when interpreting individual

profiles..

Data Analysis

The analysis of the collected data was conducted at two complementary levels. At the first level, a

descriptive analysis was applied to characterize the general profile of soft skills in the sample. Measures

of central tendency (arithmetic mean and median) and dispersion (standard deviation and coefficient of

variation) were calculated for each dimension of the instrument. Additionally, response frequencies and

percentages were determined by category for each item, which allowed for the identification of the skills

with the highest and lowest levels of development in the study group.

At the intermediate level, a comparative analysis was carried out to examine possible differences in soft

skill levels based on sociodemographic variables of interest (specifically gender). Hypothesis testing was

applied to check for statistically significant differences between groups, using the most suitable statistic

according to the assumption of normality of the data distribution confirmed by means of Shapiro-Wilk

test (as the sample size is small). A significance level of α = 0.05 was set as the threshold for the decision

to accept or reject any null hypotheses.

In addition, Cronbach’s alpha was calculated to determine the reliability of each dimension and the overall

reliability of the questionnaire with the sample that participated in this investigation. Frequencies tables

and bar charts generated with statistical software were used to facilitate the interpretation of the results.

SPSS v.26 was used for all statistical analysis. 0, and reported in accordance with APA (American

Psychological Association) standards for presenting quantitative results.

Sample Description

The sample consisted of 44 students enrolled in the first semester of the Psychology Program at CESMAG

University, of whom 25 were men (56.8%) and 19 were women (43.2%). All participants were in their

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first academic term at the time the instrument was administered, which is a key factor in interpreting the

results obtained.

Table 2. Sample Composition.

Group

Men

n

%

Description

25

19

44

56.8%

43.2%

100%

First-semester students

Complete sample

Women

Total

Note: n = number of participants. The percentages correspond to the distribution by sex within the total

sample.

Interpretation Criteria

To interpret the scores obtained in each dimension, the arithmetic mean per item was used as the unit of

analysis, given that the three dimensions have different numbers of items (AUT = 23, HHII = 10, DANAE

= 4). This strategy allows for direct comparison between dimensions on a common 1-to-4-point scale.

The interpretation ranges used are presented below:

Table 3. Interpretation.

Range (mean per

Level

Level description

Implications

item)

Requires

immediate

1.00 – 1.49

1.50 – 1.99

2.00 – 2.49

Low

Poor development

Below average

intervention

Low-Medium

Intermediate

Needs educational support

In the process of

Basic development

consolidation

Acceptable

2.50 – 2.99

Medium-High

Maturing competencies

development

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Range (mean per

item)

Level

Level description

Implications

Optimal

Consolidated

competencies

3.00 – 4.00

High

development

Note: The response scale ranges from 1 (minimum) to 4 (maximum). For the DANAE dimension, where

the scoring is inverted, higher scores indicate greater difficulties with assertiveness and team fit.

Analysis of Results

The following presents the descriptive results for each of the three dimensions evaluated, broken down

by gender and for the total sample.

Dimension: Self-Management (AUT)

The Self-Management dimension assesses the student’s ability to make decisions independently, adapt to

changes in the environment, set personal and professional goals, and communicate their vision. It consists

of 23 items and is the dimension with the highest weighting within the instrument.

Table 4. Results for the self-management dimension.

Group

Men

n

Mean

2.38

2.45

2.41

SD

Min – Max

1.52 – 3.05

1.70 – 3.12

1.52 – 3.12

Level

Medium

Mean

25

19

44

0.41

0.34

0.38

Women

Total

Note. Mean calculated per item (1–4 scale). SD = standard deviation. % of max. = percentage relative

to the maximum possible score for the dimension (92 points).

The results indicate that the 44 students obtained an overall mean of 2.41 (SD = 0.38) on the Self-

Management dimension, which corresponds to a moderate level of development of this competency.

When comparing by gender, women had a slightly higher mean (M = 2.45) than men (M = 2.38), although

both groups fall within the same interpretive level.

This result indicates that first-semester students have an emerging foundation in self-management skills;

they are capable of goal-oriented behavior and making basic decisions, but still face difficulties in

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maintaining that autonomy when faced with more complex situations or pressure. As it is their first

semester, that fits with their academic process: it would be the highest demand of university previously!

For the most part, the long-term goal items (items 28–37) and environmental section on adaptation ability

(items 20–27) were notable for their variability of response — but these sub-competencies also should be

taken more seriously in development path into academic support processes.

Dimension: Interpersonal Skills (HHII)

The Interpersonal Skills dimension assesses the student’s ability to collaborate with others, make

consultative decisions, motivate those around them, and work effectively in a team. It consists of 10

items, one of which (item 7: “I prefer to work alone”) is reverse-scored.

Table 5. Results for the Interpersonal Skills dimension.

Group

Men

n

Mean

2.33

2.44

2.38

SD

Min – Max

1.40 – 3.10

1.60 – 3.20

1.40 – 3.20

Level

Medium

Mean

25

19

44

0.44

0.39

0.42

Women

Total

Note. Mean calculated per item (scale 1–4). SD = standard deviation. % of max. = percentage relative

to the maximum possible score for the dimension (40 points).

In this dimension, the total mean was 2.38 (SD = 0.42), placing it at the medium level, the lowest score

of the three dimensions evaluated. Women showed a slightly higher mean (M = 2.44) compared to men

(M = 2.33), although there were no differences in interpretive level between groups.

These results indicate that students recognize the importance of collaborative work and interpersonal

communication, but still struggle to apply them consistently. In the context of the first semester of college,

this finding can be explained by the fact that students come from school environments that are

predominantly individualistic and are just beginning the transition to more demanding collaborative

learning environments.

The items with the lowest scores tended to be those related to delegating tasks and motivating others

toward common goals (items 16 and 17), suggesting that leadership skills within teamwork represent the

area with the greatest opportunity for improvement for this sample.

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Dimension: Difficulties with Assertiveness in Negotiation and Team Adjustment (DANAE)

The DANAE dimension assesses the difficulties students experience in interpersonal negotiation contexts

and in adapting to the group’s work rhythm. It consists of 4 items, all of which are reverse-scored;

therefore, a higher mean score in this dimension indicates a greater presence of difficulties.

Table 6. Results for the Difficulties with Assertiveness in Negotiation and Team Adjustment dimension.

Group

n

Mean

2.62

2.47

2.55

SD

Min – Max

1.25 – 3.50

1.50 – 3.25

1.25 – 3.50

Level

Medium-

High

Men

25

19

44

0.51

0.46

0.49

Women

Total

Medium

Medium-

High

Note. Mean calculated per item (reverse scale 1–4). Higher scores indicate greater difficulty. SD =

standard deviation. % of max. = percentage relative to the maximum possible score for the dimension

(16 points).

The DANAE dimension obtained the highest mean of the three dimensions assessed (M = 2.55, SD =

0.49), placing it at a medium-high level, indicating that students report a moderately high presence of

difficulties in negotiation and adjustment to teamwork. Men had a slightly higher mean (M = 2.62, mid-

to-high level) compared to women (M = 2.47, mid-level).

This result warrants the most interpretive attention within the dataset. Feeling frustrated when

negotiations do not go as expected (item 3) and having difficulty accepting others’ proposals (item 2) are

indicators that students are still developing cognitive flexibility and frustration tolerance in social

contexts. However, given that these are first-semester students , this level of difficulty can be considered

expected and likely to decrease with accumulated college experience.

It is important to note that the DANAE dimension, consisting of only four items, carries less statistical

weight in the instrument’s total score. Nevertheless, its psychological relevance is significant, as these

difficulties can directly impact academic performance in group activities and collaborative projects.

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General Analysis of Results

Overall, the 44 students evaluated exhibit an average level of soft skills, with item means ranging from

2.38 (HHII) to 2.55 (DANAE) on a 1-to-4-point scale. This pattern of results is consistent across all three

dimensions and in both gender groups.

Table 7. General Analysis of Results.

Total

Mean

% of

max.

Dimension

Items

S.D.

Level

Self-management (AUT)

Interpersonal Skills (IS)

23

10

2.41

2.38

0.38

0.42

60.3%

59.5%

Medium

Assertiveness in Negotiation

Differential (DANAE)

Medium-

High

4

2.55

0.49

63.8%

Note: % of max. = group average score as a percentage of the theoretical maximum possible for each

dimension. Means calculated per item for comparability across dimensions.

In relative terms, most developed dimension is Self-Management (AUT), followed by Interpersonal Skills

(HHII). Neurosycho- physiological improvement - An area of opportunity has been identified with

DANAE whereby it indicates moderate challenges in negotiation and adjustment to collaborative

teamwork.

The findings suggest three key ideas from the perspective of training development: (1) that students have

soft skills at an incipient level and still functional; (2) that no dimension achieves levels reaching the high

level (≥ 3.00), demonstrating that all dimensions need systematic strengthening; and (3) minimal

differences between men and women fall within the same interpretive range across all dimensions.

These results should be interpreted relative to the education phase of our participants. First-semester

college students are experiencing a transition between secondary education and higher education, where

the soft skills have traditionally not been taught explicitly nor systematically. Consequently, low Q-scores

at the beginning of academic careers are not considered a problem but a platform—on which to map

growth in proficiency over time.

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These results suggest the importance of incorporating teaching strategies aimed at strengthening soft

skills from the very first semesters of the program, particularly with regard to assertiveness in negotiation,

collaborative work, and autonomy in goal-setting. A longitudinal follow-up study would make it possible

to verify whether university education produces significant changes in these competencies throughout the

educational process.

Discussion

The results obtained in this study reveal a moderate level of soft skills among first-semester undergraduate

students in the Psychology Program at CESMAG University, with item means ranging from 2.38 to 2.55

on a 1-to-4-point scale. This finding is consistent with the international literature, which indicates that

university students’ cross-cutting competencies tend to be at an early stage of development at the

beginning of higher education, given that secondary school curricula do not typically incorporate explicit

strategies for strengthening them (Guerra-Báez, 2019; Hernández Herrera & Neri Torres, 2020).

For the Self-Management (AUT) dimension, I mean respondents scored an average of 2.41, positioned

them somewhere in-between. This finding is partly in line with Heckman and Kautz (2012), who

reviewed the evidence for perseverance and self-regulation as predictors of long-term academic

performance and success on the labor market. While items related to long-term goal setting and adaptation

to changing environments showed the most variability, together these two sub-competencies appear to be

priorities for pedagogical intervention in a formative phase during which students face simultaneous

academic and personal demands.

Finally, observations regarding the Interpersonal Skills (IIS) differ dimension obtained lower mean from

other two overall dimensions evaluated (M = 2.38); consequently, participants seem to have the most

difficulties in terms of consistent execution of competencies such as motivating others, delegation and

driving towards collective goals. This trend was in line with the results published by Fuentes et al (2021)

who specialized in interpersonal skills among Colombian university students with average levels and the

need for inclusion of distinctive programs at the higher education level. Similarly, Tseng et al. (2019)

observed that skills such as social and collaboration differed significantly according to academic level,

which strengthens the hypothesis that these competencies are consolidated more progressively throughout

university life.

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The most notable finding of the study concerns the DANAE dimension, which recorded the highest mean

(M = 2.55, medium-high level), indicating that students report a moderately high presence of difficulties

in negotiation and adjustment to group work. This dimension, which is inversely scaled, assesses

frustration with failed negotiations, difficulty accepting others’ proposals, and insecurity when

negotiating. Men exhibited greater difficulties (M = 2.62) compared to women (M = 2.47), a difference

that, although not statistically significant at a high level, is consistent with studies indicating that women

tend to develop communication and empathy skills at an earlier age (Vázquez-González et al., 2022).

From a comparative perspective with Latin American literature, the results of the present study are

consistent with those reported by González et al. (2021), who noted that most studies in the region show

average levels of soft skills among university populations and emphasize the need for culturally validated

measurement instruments. The instrument used in this research, developed according to the principles of

Classical Test Theory (CTT) with three clearly differentiated dimensions, offers a rigorous psychometric

approach that allows for the comparability of results across different Spanish-speaking groups and

institutions, thereby addressing one of the most frequently cited methodological gaps in the literature.

Finally, the findings of this study should be interpreted with caution given the cross-sectional design

adopted, which prevents the establishment of causal relationships between the level of soft skills and the

participants’ academic performance or subsequent employability. The social desirability bias inherent in

self-report- s also constitutes a methodological limitation to be considered, although the inclusion of

reverse-scored items in the instrument represents a strategy that partially helps mitigate it. Despite these

limitations, the results provide a relevant quantitative baseline for the design of pedagogical interventions

aimed at strengthening cross-cutting competencies from the earliest semesters of university education.

Conclusions

The objective of this study was to analyze the level of development of soft skills among first-semester

undergraduate students in the Psychology Program at CESMAG University, using a psychometric

instrument structured around three dimensions: Self-Management (AUT), Interpersonal Skills (HHII),

and Difficulties with Assertiveness in Negotiation and Team Adjustment (DANAE). The results obtained

allow us to draw the following conclusions.

First, the 44 students evaluated exhibit a moderate level of soft skills in the dimensions of Self-

Management (M = 2.41) and Interpersonal Skills (M = 2.38), and a medium-high level in the DANAE

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dimension (M = 2.55). No dimension reached a high level (≥ 3.00), indicating that all assessed

competencies require systematic and sustained strengthening throughout the university education

process. This finding aligns with studies reporting that soft skills of university graduates are below labour

market expectations, particularly in terms of assertiveness, negotiation and leadership in teams (Robles

2012; Succi & Canovi 2020).

Secondly, the second most worrying factor in this profile was when it comes to DANAE – moderately

high difficulties interpersonally and working at the group’s pace. Considering that these competencies

are fundamental in more complex work situations where collaboration between different areas and

conflict management is required, the findings endorsed immediate efforts to articulate curricular

strategies focused on assertiveness and frustration tolerance at the very beginning of the course. This

training need is likely to be addressed through active methodologies, working on problems based on the

student-managed project and negotiation simulations.

Third, the small differences in men and women behaviour that were detected in our three selected

dimensions have not proven sufficiently conclusive to define separate intervention groups. On the other

hand, women had slightly higher means on the AUT and HHII dimensions but men experienced more

difficulties in DANAE. These results are consistent with other studies that suggest a moderating role of

gender on the emergence of soft skills in the university context (Vázquez-González et al., 2022), although

alone, differences found do not adequately justify the need to design differentiated intervention programs

between men and women.

Fourth, the results of this study provide a quantitative baseline on the profile of soft skills at the start of

undergraduate psychology training, which opens the door to longitudinal research that can track the

evolution of these competencies throughout the educational process and evaluate the impact of the

pedagogical strategies implemented by the institution. A follow-up design in subsequent semesters would

allow us to determine whether university education produces significant and statistically verifiable

changes in the dimensions assessed.

From an institutional perspective, the findings invite the academic authorities of the Psychology Program

at CESMAG University to review current curricula in order to identify in which courses and educational

settings the development of soft skills is being addressed, and to what extent this approach is intentional,

systematic, and evaluated. The evidence available in the Latin American literature suggests that the

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integration of these competencies into the university curriculum is often incidental and unplanned, which

limits their impact on students’ holistic development (Guerra-Báez, 2019; González et al., 2021).

Finally, on the issue of obtaining a better measure less prone to social desirability bias, it is advisable to

move towards assessment techniques complementary to self-report methods (for instance peer

assessment, direct observation, 360° evaluation). A Mixed-methods designs that integrate psychometric

measurement with qualitative approaches (e.g., interviews, focus groups) can yield complementary

information regarding the phenomenon and instrument validity. This study methodological and

empirically contributes to soft skills measurements in universities of Latin America, towards future

research with wider scope.

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COLLABORATIVE WORK TABLE

Role

Author(s)

Conceptualization

Methodology

García Parada Ricardo

Orduño Aguirre Edgar Gerardo, Silva Martínez Mario

Héctor

Software

Hernández Máynez Obed, Castillo Cruz Olga Rebeca

García Parada Ricardo

Validation

Formal Analysis

Orduño Aguirre Edgar Gerardo, Silva Martínez Mario

Héctor

Research

Hernández Máynez Obed, Castillo Cruz Olga Rebeca

García Parada Ricardo

Resources

Data Curation

Orduño Aguirre Edgar Gerardo, Silva Martínez Mario

Héctor

Writing - Preparation of the original

draft

Hernández Máynez Obed, Castillo Cruz Olga Rebeca

Writing - Review and editing

Visualization

García Parada Ricardo

Orduño Aguirre Edgar Gerardo, Silva Martínez Mario

Héctor

Supervision

Hernández Máynez Obed, Castillo Cruz Olga Rebeca

García Parada Ricardo

Project Management

Fundraising

Orduño Aguirre Edgar Gerardo, Silva Martínez Mario

Héctor

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