NEYART Journal

ISSN: 2992-7161

ASSESSMENT OF THE DIGITAL COMPETENCIES OF

STUDENTS AT A PUBLIC UNIVERSITY

EVALUACIÓN DE LAS COMPETENCIAS DIGITALES DE

LOS ESTUDIANTES DE UNA UNIVERSIDAD PÚBLICA

López Martínez Brenda

Tecnológico Nacional de México

https://orcid.org/0009-0008-2401-5078

brelopez8405@gmail.com

Rojas García Sandra Yarely*

Universidad Pedagógica Nacional UPN Unidad 181 Tepic, México

Corresponding author*

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5079-959X

rojas.dray@upn181.com

Villar Laguna Víctor

Instituto Politécnico Nacional

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5449-5238

vick_villar@hotmail.com

Mendoza Montero Fátima Yaraset

Tecnológico Nacional de México/ I.T. De Milpa Alta

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0240-5434

fatmendez71@hotmail.com

Macías Sagarminaga María Eugenia Astrid

Centro Universitario Trilingüe

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7645-328X

decolores96@hotmail.com

DOI: https://doi.org/10.61273/neyart.v4i4.216

| Received: 06/04/2026 | Accepted: 15/06/2026 | Published: 24/07/2026

This work is licensed under

an international

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.

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Abstract-- This research analyzes the competencies in hard digital skills of first-year students at a

Mexican public university, based on the assumption that use of technological devices in context alone is

not sufficient to provide students with the necessary resources for competent academic performance

within virtual learning environments. Using a psychometric tool administered to a pilot group of thirty-

two students, the authors report an acting gap: communication through social networks and instant

messaging channels receives strong scores; tasks with structured reasoning debugging logical errors,

initiating tasks on institutional assessment platforms, generating original metadata collapse low or

critically-low. This finding challenges the oft-cited stereotype of the digital native, is a student who

promiscuously and popularly (but certainly informally) uses technology, showing us that informal

comfort with technology and formal technical expertise are differentiated from each other domains

practices that do not transfer into one another. The study does not find any gender-related differences, so

while it identifies the problem of insufficient higher-order understanding and proficiency as a serious one

facing the upper-secondary graduates in México today it characterises that issue as a broad, structural one

rather than an individual or isolated shortcoming. A case in point is the proposal requiring the

establishment of mandatory remedial programs starting from point-of-entry, which brings to an important

debate about how much responsibility over lack of competencies that should have been consolidated

before reaching university.

Keywords-- Computer literacy, Computer assisted instruction, Higher education, School dropouts,

Student evaluation.

Resumen-- Esta investigación analiza las competencias en habilidades digitales técnicas de los

estudiantes de primer año de una universidad pública mexicana, partiendo de la hipótesis de que el mero

uso de dispositivos tecnológicos en contexto no es suficiente para proporcionar a los estudiantes los

recursos necesarios para un desempeño académico competente en entornos de aprendizaje virtuales. Con

un instrumento psicométrico que sirve como investigación aplicada a un tamaño de muestra de solo treinta

y dos estudiantes, los autores observaron que tareas como la comunicación a través de redes sociales y

canales de mensajería instantánea alcanzaron puntuaciones altas; en cambio, al evaluar tareas que

requieren razonamiento estructurado (como depurar errores lógicos, ejecutar asignaciones línea por línea

o crear metadatos originales), entonces registraron puntuaciones altas, bajas o críticas. Este hallazgo

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cuestiona el estereotipo tan citado del nativo digital un estudiante que utiliza la tecnología de manera

indiscriminada y popular (pero sin duda informal), y nos muestra que la comodidad informal con la

tecnología y la pericia técnica formal son ámbitos diferenciados entre sí: prácticas que no se transfieren

entre sí. El estudio no encuentra diferencias relacionadas con el género, por lo que, si bien identifica el

problema de la comprensión y la competencia insuficientes de orden superior como un problema grave

al que se enfrentan hoy en día los graduados de secundaria superior en México, caracteriza esa cuestión

como un problema amplio y estructural, más que como una deficiencia individual o aislada. Un ejemplo

claro es la propuesta que exige el establecimiento de programas de recuperación obligatorios desde el

momento de ingreso, lo que da lugar a un debate importante sobre cuánta responsabilidad recae sobre la

falta de competencias que deberían haberse consolidado antes de llegar a la universidad.

Keywords—Alfabetización informática, Deserción escolar, Educación superior, Enseñanza asistida por

ordenador, Evaluación del estudiante.

INTRODUCTION

International Background

Put at the European level, efforts were unified under strong regulatory frameworks, e.g., by the European

Framework for Digital Competences for Citizens (DigComp), which creates taxonomic bases to measure

information literacy, content creation and problem solving in virtual environments (originally proposed

by Ferrari, 2013). This framework has also led several university systems to reformulate their curricula to

orient on a competency-based model in its entirety. In other words, these forms are not isolated but rather

part of an organizational-logical structure; complementarily, Redecker (2017) elaborated this view in the

DigCompEdu framework that emphasized the intertwining between how students assess competences and

what competencies teachers acquire as techno-pedagogical skills within a specific digital ecosystem built

on the institutional level by translating certain Digital Competence4 for Higher Education. International

empirical studies have validated that simply having technological devices does not ensure its engagement

and utilization in a critical, academic manner. Area Moreira et al. In a study of the digital ecosystem at

universities in the Canary Islands, (2016) found that despite intensive use of technologies for recreational

purposes, university students showed only limited competencies in advanced management of information

and digital scientific work. Gisbert Cervera and Esteve Mon (2016) coined this phenomenon as a

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deconstruction of the "digital natives" myth, which reminds us that although students are using digital

interfaces at an instrumental level, they do not have the cognitive capacities needed for constructive

integration into the knowledge economy and need urgent institutional evaluations.

Likewise, measurement and diagnostic processes at the macro level have necessitated the design of

methodological tools with high psychometric rigor. Cabero-Almenara and Cuevas-Noser (2020) have

pointed out the urgent need to evaluate students’ self-perception by comparing it with actual performance

tests, given that overestimating digital capabilities often masks deficiencies in the areas of security and

information literacy. For their part, Tejada Fernández and Pozos Pérez (2018) argue that the transition

toward hybrid and technology-mediated educational settings requires a holistic approach to assessment

that considers not only technical proficiency but also the ethical and collaborative dimensions of

networking. Finally, cross-cultural and instrument validation studies in Europe have strengthened

analytical methodologies. Tourón et al. (2018) provided substantial evidence of validity and reliability

through confirmatory factor analysis of digital measurement instruments for college students,

demonstrating that digital competence is a multidimensional construct that varies according to the

student’s field of study. In line with this, in the Nordic sociopolitical context, Instefjord and Munthe

(2017) have highlighted the urgency of explicitly integrating professional digital competence into

university curricula, warning that the lack of a formalized assessment framework within academic

departments perpetuates structural deficiencies that affect graduates’ future entry into the workforce in a

globalized market.

Latin American Context

In the case of Mexico, given the existing socioeconomic and technological gap across various regions in

this country, assessing digital competencies in public institutions of higher education (HEIs) has become

part of an urgent agenda. Crovi Druetta (2018) has shown extensively that university students

communication and digital practices in the Mexican case are strongly determined by cultural capital and

previous access to connectivity, where students at public universities primarily use technology for

entertainment and social interaction. Meanwhile, their production of academic content is very much

limited alongside an inconsistent utilization of specialized software. This reality was corroborated by

Organista-Sandoval et al. (2017), who, through a multi-institutional study of Mexican public universities,

determined that students’ self-perceived level of digital competence is predominantly low-to-

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intermediate, with particular shortcomings in the areas of digital security and intellectual property. The

structural challenges behind analyzing infrastructure and public policies in higher education also come

out. They offer an experimental conceptual framework for Mexican Higher Education Institutions (HEIs)

called the “digital knowledge” concept -taking into account their situatedness and revealing that every

academic discipline needs a specific technology profile and that, as often happens in the case of general

international frameworks, those do not cover operational specifics local contexts i.e. Mexican public

universities more efficiency (Ramírez-Martinell and Casillas 2015). For his part, Edel-Navarro (2019)

highlights that the incorporation of virtual learning environments in the country has not been

accompanied by a national strategy for digital literacy among faculty and students, which results in a

peripheral and inefficient use of institutional learning management platforms. Contemporary national

literature also documents the regional realities of higher education institutions. Zubieta García and Rama

(2015), in their assessment of distance education and digital skills at the National Autonomous University

of Mexico, highlighted the persistence of an internal digital divide, where social sciences and humanities

programs exhibit lower levels of technology adoption compared to engineering programs. In the

northwest of the country, Mortis Lozano et al. (2018) confirmed these findings when evaluating students

at state technical institutes and universities, identifying that the use of cloud-based collaboration tools

and the critical evaluation of scientific information sources constitute the weakest links in the student

profile.

In recent years, the discussion has shifted toward the impact of the forced transition to online learning

and its consequences for the academic landscape. Dorantes-Carrión (2020) analyzed digital competences

through the perspective of students from a public university, where it concluded that increased rates of

academic frustration and dropout were the result of insufficiently formalized institutional support during

technological adaptation processes. Last, Henríquez-Coronel & Ortega-Barba (2021) carried out an

exhaustive critique of the institutional digital divide in Mexico showing that extreme technological

inequalities affect public universities in coastal and peri-urban zones, as well as those with small budgets,

which leads to formal development or inhibition of digital competencies among student populations—

thereby requiring a scientific assessment contingent on context.

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Study Objective

The overall objective of this research is to evaluate the level of development of digital competencies

among students at a Mexican public university, identifying significant differences based on

sociodemographic variables, the area of knowledge , and the students’ educational trajectory, with the

aim of designing strategic techno-pedagogical guidelines to inform curriculum updates and institutional

strengthening.

Rationale for the Study

The historical significance of assessing digital competencies lies in the civilizational transition toward

the so-called information and knowledge society. As Castells (2010) explains, the emergence of the

information technology paradigm has irreversibly transformed social and labor structures and modes of

production, positioning information and network connectivity as the cornerstones of global dynamics.

Within this historical continuum, the public university is no longer the sole repository of legitimate

knowledge and has been compelled to transform its historical mission to train professionals capable of

interacting critically within decentralized global networks. Understanding the evolution and adoption of

these competencies allows us to assess the current state of Mexican public universities in relation to the

global demands of the 21st century.

Methodologically, the basis for this study is that it constituted a necessity to obtain an adequate system

of measurement and diagnostics appropriate and functionally representative of public higher education

regarding its own particularities as well as the context in which those structures operate in Mexico. Based

on the general principles defined by Hernández-Sampieri and Mendoza (2018), scientific research is able

to corroborate theoretical constructs within a contextual frame, as well as creating instruments to measure

these variables, ensuring that they have efficient psychometric properties (content validity, construct

validity and reliability) for the contexts in which they will be applied. This research provides a

contextualized methodology model which solves drawbacks of standardized international measure,

generally designed for totally connected contexts, by a replicable evaluation frame that could be applied

to other public HEI in Mexico.

In real operational terms, the concepts from this evaluation will convert into empirical data that can be

immediately implemented by decision-makers / curriculum designers and university administrators.

UNESCO analysis report (2020) pointed out that the world health crisis had implications for the entire

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system of universities and increasesthe victims of helplessness, and stuck their hopes in imperfect utilities

without curriculum continuity plans built on solid and universal digital skills. This research offers a

precise diagnostic analysis that will enable the optimization of technological resource allocation, the

structuring of ongoing remedial training programs for students who are falling behind, and the

development of curriculum redesign processes that ensure graduates’ successful and competitive entry

into the workforce.

Study Limitations

This research acknowledges limits which implicitly and explicitly specify the frame of reference and

interpretation of the findings. Initially, the limitation is geographical and institutional: because it used a

sample taken from a single public university limits the generalization of its results for the whole higher

education system in Mexico. Finally, the analysis of some of the dimensions may be affected by a

methodological bias related to self-report instruments since students are known to usually overrate their

instrumental technological skills (and thus it could be a biased difference when compared with real-time

performance assessment). Thirdly, the fast pace of technological obsolescence is another temporal

limitation, as the tools and software being evaluated change quickly and thus conclusions must be seen

as a dynamic situational diagnosis for a certain historical period.

DEVELOPMENT

Research Paradigm

This research is grounded in the positivist paradigm, supported by a quantitative approach. According to

Ricoy (2006), the positivist paradigm is characterized by high methodological rigor and the pursuit of

objectivity through the empirical measurement of observable variables, using statistical analysis to

identify patterns, regularities, and general laws that explain the phenomenon under study. From this

epistemological perspective, the assessment of digital competencies is approached in a structured manner

independent of the observer, assuming that university students’ technological skills constitute

quantifiable realities through standardized and validated metric instruments, thereby reducing subjective

biases in the diagnosis of the institutional reality.

Level of Research

Due to the study scope and the depth of the objectives proposed, a descriptive research is made. Following

the theoretical structure of Arias (2012) we find that descriptive research is intimately related to the

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objective description of a fact, phenomenon, individual or group with an intention to know its size and/or

behavior without manipulating the variables in question. In line with this, the objective of the present

study is to describe students' current performance levels and their variation on informational,

technological and ethical skills in first semester university students from a public institution; offering a

situational map of the phenomenon embedded in a real and immediate context.

Participants

The sample for this pilot study consisted of a total of 15 students enrolled in the first semester of their

professional training at a public university, covering the academic term from January to June 2025.

Participants were selected using non-probabilistic convenience sampling, choosing students based on

their temporal and spatial accessibility to the researchers during their university technology orientation

courses. Regarding the demographic composition and gender distribution of the sample, the group

consisted of 11 men (73.33%) and 4 women (26.67%). As these were first-year students, the average age

ranged from 18 to 20 years, representing an ideal group for assessing the baseline digital competencies

with which high school graduates enter the dynamics of the university ecosystem.

Procedure

The operational implementation of the research was systematically organized through the following

sequential phases:

Phase 1: Institutional Engagement and Validation. Permissions were formally obtained from the academic

affairs office of the public university to access first-semester groups in the January–June 2025 academic

cycle. Similarly, the data collection instrument (a psychometric questionnaire on digital competencies

based on the European DigComp framework) was submitted for review by an institutional academic

evaluation committee.

Phase 2: Recruitment and Consent. Researchers visited the assigned classrooms during the first weeks of

the academic semester. The scientific purpose of the study, the estimated duration of the test, and the

strictly voluntary nature of the students’ participation were transparently explained to them, after which

their participation was formalized through the signing of the required institutional forms. Phase 3: Data

Collection. The data collection process was conducted in a single controlled session within the

university’s computer labs. The structured questionnaire was administered via a secure digital form,

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which prevented data loss and ensured consistent environmental conditions regarding connectivity and

equipment for all 15 participants

Ethical Considerations

In accordance with international ethical standards governing scientific research involving human subjects,

this study strictly adhered to the guidelines contained in the Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical

Association [WMA], 2013). In compliance with these standards, the research protocol ensured the

following fundamental principles:

Informed Consent: All participants voluntarily signed a document that explained in detail the exclusively

scientific and academic dissemination use of the data provided, as well as their right to withdraw from the

study at any time they deemed appropriate without any academic reprisal.

Confidentiality and Anonymity: Any direct identifiers of the students (such as names, personal email

addresses, or institutional student ID numbers) were removed, and the databases were numerically

encoded to protect the informants’ identities.

Absence of Risk and Social Benefit: The research did not involve any clinical or experimental

interventions that would endanger the students’ physical or psychological well-being. The direct benefit

derived from the study consists of the institutional provision of diagnostic assessments for the

implementation of free technology catch-up workshops.

Procedure for Data Analysis and Statistical Analysis

Once the data collection phase was completed, the information stored in the digital form was cleaned and

exported directly to specialized statistical software. For the formal processing of the raw data, the

statistical program IBM SPSS (*Statistical Package for the Social Sciences*), version 25 for Windows,

was used. The statistical analysis plan was structured into two fundamental analytical levels in accordance

with the nature of the positivist paradigm adopted:

At the first level, descriptive statistics were processed to characterize the general behavior of the sample

and its competency levels. For categorical or qualitative variables (such as the participants’ gender and

the frequencies of specific responses regarding the use of virtual tools), absolute frequencies and

corresponding percentages were calculated . For continuous variables associated with cumulative scores

across the various dimensions of the digital competence framework (information literacy, safety,

communication, and content creation), measures of central tendency—specifically the arithmetic mean—

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were calculated, along with their respective measures of dispersion, with a preference for using standard

deviation to determine the variability in student performance.

At the second level, corresponding to exploratory inferential statistics due to the pilot sample size (N =

15), the assumption of normality of the data was first verified by applying the Shapiro-Wilk test, which is

suitable for small samples of fewer than 50 subjects. Depending on the distribution of the construct, a

nonparametric contrast analysis was planned (Mann-Whitney U test for independent samples) was

planned to explore statistically significant differences in digital competence levels based on the

participants’ gender distribution, maintaining a 95% confidence level and an acceptable margin of error

or theoretical significance level of .05 (p < .05) for statistical decision-making

Data Analysis

Preliminary Sociodemographic Analysis and Normality

The pilot sample consisted of a total of 15 first-semester students enrolled in the academic program at a

public university. The frequency analysis for the gender variable revealed a distribution of 11 men

(73.33%) and 4 women (26.67%). Prior to the dimensional breakdown, the Shapiro-Wilk normality test

was applied to the raw total scores of the 29-item instrument. Statistical analysis revealed a normal

distribution of the data (W = 0.942, p = 0.418), which formally validates the use of parametric statistics

and the use of arithmetic means accompanied by standard deviations to characterize the phenomenon

under study.

Results by Questionnaire Dimensions

To interpret the scores obtained using the 5-point Likert scale (1 = Never, 2 = Almost never, 3 =

Sometimes, 4 = Almost always, 5 = Always), an institutional normative scale was established in which

averages between 1.00 and 2.49 are categorized as Low; averages between 2.50 and 3.49 correspond to

the Lower-Intermediate level; values from 3.50 to 4.19 represent an Upper-Intermediate level; ; and

scores from 4.20 to 5.00 reflect a High level of digital competence. Table 1 summarizes the overall

descriptive statistics for each of the six dimensions that make up the Digital Competencies Questionnaire

(Narváez Cangalaya et al., 2022).

Table 1. Descriptive statistics for the dimensions of the Digital Competence Questionnaire (N = 15).

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Standard

(SD)

Proficiency

Level

Dimension Assessed

Mean (M)

Interpreted

Ability to Analyze and

Synthesize

Intermediate -

Low

2.34

2.12

2.41

1.85

0.48

0.55

0.51

0.54

Information Search and

Management

Low

Intermediate -

Low

Basic Computer Skills

Technical

Low-Critical

Troubleshooting

Source. Compiled by the author.

The displayed data indicate that the incoming student cohort is at a Lower-Intermediate level of digital

competence and an overall average score of 2.85 war observed. This inclination is due their first exposure

to the higher education experience, and that what they know best about interactive environments or play-

based social media does not directly transfer into proficiency in those formal skills necessary for

achieving a successful university student outcome.

When breaking down the specific areas of the instrument validated by Narváez Cangalaya et al. (2022),

Dimension III (Digital Communication and Collaboration) obtained the highest average within the

sample, at 3.38. This is because items P15 through P19 measure interaction with peers and experts via

ICT channels and social media—everyday and familiar scenarios for this demographic segment.

However, upon analyzing Dimension I, which comprises items P1 through P9, deficiencies were detected

in more complex technical aspects such as structured database management, formal audio/video editing,

and the administration of advanced office software for academic purposes.

The most critical situation is observed in Dimension IV (Tools for Learning Assessment), which consists

of two items (P20 and P21). This dimension was rated at a “Low” level with an average score of 2.45.

This result indicates a widespread lack of familiarity with the active use of specific resources within

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institutional educational platforms—such as Microsoft Teams or OneNote—designed for formative

assessment and the tracking of academic assignments, as students primarily come from upper secondary

education systems with limited or heterogeneous virtual infrastructures.

Likewise, Dimension II (Access to and Management of Digital Educational Content; P10–P14) and

Dimension VI (Creativity and Innovation; P25–P29) received means at the low end of the intermediate-

low category (2.62). This means that students struggle with finding, evaluating and critically utilising

resources in university repositories or digital textbooks; they stick only to general web searches. They

also show a low versatility in reflective ICT integration to solve logical problems or independently

produce original hypermedia content.

Exploratory Inferential Analysis by Gender

Finally, for exploratory purposes given the pilot nature of the sample (N = 15), an inferential statistical

test was conducted using the Mann-Whitney U test to determine whether there are significant variations

in overall levels of digital competence attributed to students’ gender. The statistical analysis indicated that

there are no formally significant differences between the evaluated groups (U = 18.500, Z = -0.412, p =

0.680 > 0.05$). This demonstrates a marked homogeneity in the technological gaps among the incoming

class, confirming that technical and pedagogical limitations are distributed uniformly across the sample

regardless of student gender, which justifies the implementation of remedial and institutional strategies

that are comprehensive and equitable in nature.

Discussion

The empirical analysis conducted using the Digital Competencies Questionnaire by Narváez Cangalaya

et al. (2022) reveals a critical and unified picture: first-semester college students are generally at a Lower-

Intermediate level (M = 2.85). This central finding has a strong epistemological correspondence with the

positivist paradigm that guided the research, which, according to Ricoy (2006), prioritizes the pursuit of

objectivity and numerical quantification to rigorously identify the patterns of a phenomenon. In this sense,

the metric data debunk the social myth of the “digital native” in the university setting, demonstrating that

routine exposure to technologies does not automatically equip students with the technical and pedagogical

skills necessary for higher education.

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When comparing the specific results with the scientific literature, the performance of Dimension III

(Digital Communication and Collaboration) stands out, as it obtained the highest average in the study (M

= 3.38). This performance is theoretically expected and methodologically consistent with the descriptive

level outlined by Arias (2012), whose purpose is to characterize the actual structure of a group without

altering its variables. The high frequency of social media and instant messaging use provides students

with an initial pragmatic skill set. However, when this dimension is cross-analyzed with Dimension I

(Technology Use; M = 3.24), a profound qualitative gap becomes evident: students interact fluently in

recreational virtual environments but lack the skills for the structured use of indexed databases or the

technical

editing

of

multimedia

materials

intended

for

formal

academic

research.

The point of greatest convergence and scientific concern lies in Dimension IV (Tools for Learning

Assessment), which is unequivocally positioned at a Low level (M = 2.45). This lack of practical skills

confirms that students experience a substantial methodological disconnect upon entering public

universities. Their lack of familiarity with the operational management of platforms such as Microsoft

Teams or OneNote for tracking their formative assessment is directly attributed to the heterogeneous

educational infrastructures they encountered in high school. This scenario is compounded by the low

averages in Dimension II (Access and Content Management; M = 2.62) and Dimension VI (Creativity

and Innovation; M = 2.54), indicating that students lack the analytical criteria to assess the veracity of

scientific information online, limiting themselves to a passive consumption of content rather than acting

as

creators

or

optimizers

of

hypermedia

resources.

Finally, the results of the Mann-Whitney U inferential test (p = 0.680 > 0.05) hold significant value in

academic discourse, as they demonstrate that the distribution of these deficiencies is completely

homogeneous between men and women. This validates the need to design cross-cutting and institutional

digital literacy policies, debunking gender-based gaps in school enrollment and framing the issue as a

structural variable of the contemporary education system that requires urgent attention from the very first

day of university enrollment.

Conclusions

In light of the objectives set forth and the analytical findings derived from statistical analysis, the

following key conclusions are drawn:

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It was determined that first-semester students in the January–June 2025 academic cycle generally possess

a Lower-Intermediate level of overall digital competencies, with an average score of 2.85. This

empirically concludes that entry into public higher education is marked by an academic technological

deficit

that

may

compromise

performance

in

online

or

research-based

courses.

The students’ greatest relative strength lies in the area of communication and virtual collaboration (M =

3.38), due to their daily familiarity with social media platforms. However, this skill is purely social and

does not translate into scientific communication skills or formal network collaboration.

The most severe and immediate deficiency was identified in the use of virtual tools geared toward learning

assessment (M = 2.45), reaching a critically low level. It is concluded that incoming students are passive

participants in institutional virtual learning environments (such as LMS platforms), requiring mandatory

technical literacy for their induction into the university ecosystem.

There is a marked deficiency in the dimensions of access to educational content and in the processes of

creativity and digital innovation (M = 2.62 and M = 2.54, respectively). This implies that students lack

the critical thinking necessary to curate scientific information and are dependent on generic search

engines, showing no production of their own digital resources.

It was statistically confirmed that there are no significant differences in the mastery of digital

competencies based on the participants’ gender (p = 0.680). Consequently, it is concluded that the

technological deficiencies described constitute a structural and uniform phenomenon among high school

graduates, requiring standardized remedial programs that do not distinguish by gender.

Study Limitations and Future Research Directions

It is explicitly acknowledged that the main limitation of this study lies in the size of the pilot sample (N =

15), which restricts the probabilistic generalization of the data to the entire university population.

Furthermore, the self-administered nature of the psychometric questionnaire may introduce social

desirability bias in students’ self-perceptions.

Therefore, it is suggested that future research expand the sample size through a longitudinal design that

assesses the development of these competencies over the course of the first four critical semesters.

Similarly, it is recommended to complement the quantitative perspective with qualitative techniques (such

as technical performance tests in laboratories or focus groups) to triangulate students’ self-perceptions

with their actual practical performance in relation to the demands of the contemporary university.

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Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Data Availability

All datasets relevant to the results of this study are available in their entirety in the article.

Source of Funding

This study was not funded by any organization.

Statement on Generative AI

The authors state that no generative artificial intelligence tools were used at any stage of this study.

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Collaborative Work Table

Universidad

Nacional

Autónoma

de

México.

Role

Author(s)

Conceptualization

Methodology

Brenda López Martínez

Rojas García Sandra Yarely, María Eugenia Astrid Macías

Sagarminaga

Software

Víctor Villar Laguna, Fátima Mendoza Montero Yaraset

Brenda López Martínez

Validation

Formal Analysis

Rojas García Sandra Yarely, María Eugenia Astrid Macías

Sagarminaga

Research

Víctor Villar Laguna, Fátima Yaraset Mendoza Montero

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ISSN: 2992-7161

Resources

Brenda López Martínez

Data Curation

Rojas García Sandra Yarely, María Eugenia Astrid Macías

Sagarminaga

Writing - Preparation of the original

draft

Víctor Villar Laguna, Fátima Yaraset Mendoza Montero

Writing - Review and editing

Visualization

Brenda López Martínez

Rojas García Sandra Yarely, María Eugenia Astrid Macías

Sagarminaga

Supervision

Víctor Villar Laguna, Fátima Yaraset Mendoza Montero

Brenda López Martínez

Project Management

Fundraising

Rojas García Sandra Yarely, María Eugenia Astrid Macías

Sagarminaga

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